A review on pharmacological properties of Solanum tuberosum

 

Koushika Das, Pranit Krishna, Avipsha Sarkar, Shanmuga Sundari Ilangovan, Shampa Sen^*

School of Biosciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore, India

 

ABSTRACT:

Plant materials remain one of the important resources to combat serious diseases around the world. In the developing countries, the traditional medicinal methods, especially the use of medicinal plants, still play a major role to cover the basic health requirements. The medicinal values of these plants rest in some bio-active substances that produce certain physiological activity within the human body. The major bioactive constituents in the plant are alkaloids, tannin, flavonoid and phenolic compounds. The various notable pharmacological actions of the plant such as activity on heart, anti-diabetic and cholesterol trimming property, antimicrobial activity, antiulcer activity, anti-oxidative property, anti-diarrhea activity, phagocytic activity, cytotoxic activity etc. This paper aims to provide a review on the antimicrobial and pharmacological properties of potato(Solanum tuberosum) leaves.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Potato is a part of every household and most of the world’s cuisine. It is the most grown non-cereal crop. Its ability to grow in adverse conditions makes it the most important crop that can be grown in harsh weather conditions. It is the fourth largest food crop grown following rice, wheat, maize. There are about 4000 different varieties of potatoes. Its abundant availability makes us wonder what other benefits it can provide than just a food material. Moreover, plants are important sources of antimicrobial agents. So, potato can prove to be a major source of some antimicrobials against common pathogens.

 

Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow up to 100 cm (40 inch) high, depending on variety with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. The stalks, leaves and green berries possess the narcotic and poisonous properties of the Nightshades. But the tubers we eat (which are not the root, but mere enlargements of underground stems, shortened and thickened, in which starch is stored up for the future use of the plant), not being acted on by light, do not develop the poisonous properties contained by that part of the plant above ground. The influence of light on the tubers can be observed if in spring-time young green potatoes are exposed to daylight, when it will be found that they become poisonous and have a disagreeable taste¹.

 

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a valuable source of bioactive compounds. Besides starch, crude fiber, amino acids (AAS), vitamins and minerals, the tubers contain diverse phenolic compounds. These phenolics and AAS confer anti-oxidant protection against reactive oxygen species, tissue damage, and diseases like atherosclerosis, renal failure, diabetes mellitus, and cancer². The antimicrobial properties of potato tubers, roots, peel, leaves and sprouts have already been identified. It has been found that bioactive compounds are most concentrated in the leaves rather than stems, and roots³.Besides being a food material tubers are also favored for medicinal purposes rather than just using it as animal feed.

 

DESCRIPTION OF POTATO PLANT:

Potato root system is so well developed and strong like other plants. It can vary from light and superficial to fibrous and deep. Therefore, potato plants need good soil conditions for growing. Potato plant can be grown from both seeds and tubers. Plants grown from seeds develop a slender tap root system whereas those grown from tubers develop adventitious root system. Stem system comprises of stems, stolons and tubers. Plants grown from a true seed give rise to one main stem. Plants grown from tubers give rise to several main stems. Stems are generally green although sometimes it can be reddish brown purple. Stolons are similar to the stems having leaf scales places as alternatively as the leaves are arranged along the stems. Tubers form on the tips of stolons and sometimes along the stolons.

 

The plant has a rosette and semi-rosette habit with leaves arranged near the base of the stems and the soil surface. The flowers are bisexual. They have all male and female reproductive parts. Fruits or the tubers start to form after 5-7 weeks after plantation when the plants are about 15-20 cm in height. Formations of tubers is not dependent on flowering. Sometimes tubers develop even with no flowers on the above-ground part of the plant.

 

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF POTATO PLANT:

Planted potato seeds have the following growth stages⁴. The Sprout developmental stage begins with development of eyes in the tuber during storage. It then moves on to the formation of sprouts and development of shoots after planting. The time taken by the shoots to emerge from the soil depends on the length of the shoot, soil moisture and other environmental conditions. 1-2cm long sprouts should ideally give rise to shoots that emerge from the soil after 21-30 days of planting. During this stage the plant still uses nutrients stored in the tuber.

 

Vegetative growth stage involves rapid growth of shoot, stem, roots and leaves.  The plant still takes nutrients from the tuber but also starts to rely on nutrients from the soil during this stage of development. Tuber initiation stage or tuber formation starts after 40-55 days after planting. This stage is short involving a time of 10-15 days during which the plant requires many nutrients. At Tuber bulking stage, the plant stops growing and only the tubers increases in size. During tuber maturation stage, the leaves start to become yellow in color and stem starts drooping. Tuber skins gradually start to harden. Tubers start to harden due to their starch content, which gradually increases. Their hardness and sturdy skins characterize mature tubers. Harvesting after 100 days of planting is considered appropriate and most beneficial. Although these are the stages of development, they are not much distinct and generally overlap with each other.

 

ETHNOBOTANY:

Nutrition:

Potatoes are mostly composed of starches. They are complex carbohydrates in the form of sugars, virtually free of fat and cholesterol. Potato is also rich in potassium and other minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur and copper. Vitamins present in potato are beta-carotene, vitamin A, C, B1, B2, B6, and folic acid. They are found in large amounts. In small amounts fiber and protein are also found. Most of the nutrients are in or just under the skin of the potatoes. New potatoes, except the green ones are especially rich with all these nutrients⁵. Phenolics and a number of antioxidants are present in potato. These antioxidants possess free radical scavenging effects, and help in reducing coronary heart diseases by inhibiting cholesterol accumulation in blood serum. They also intensify vascular wall resistance⁶.

 

Therapeutic uses:

Anemia:

Potatoes are excellent sources of both iron and folic acid, which are essential for formation of red blood cells. So, potatoes can be used as a natural aid in the prevention or treatment of different forms of anemia.

 

Arthritis:

Arthritis is an inflammatory condition. The high mineral and organic salt content in potato makes it one of the best anti-inflammatory foods.

 

Burns, rashes and other skin irritations:

When applied on the skin, raw potatoes (cut into slices or juiced) have anti-irritating, soothing and de-congesting properties^{7, 8, 9}.

 

Constipation and hemorrhoids:

Boiled or steamed potatoes promote the formation and passage of soft, hydrated stools. So they can be effectively used as a natural remedy to treat constipation and prevent hemorrhoids.

 

Gastritis and gastric ulcers:

Raw potato juice is used to treat gastritis, colitis, gastric and intestinal ulcers due to its anti-acid and healing properties.

 

Reduces high blood pressure:

Potatoes are excellent sources of potassium, which helps lower and stabilize blood pressure.

 

Rheumatism:

The juice is used as a remedy for rheumatism. Its detoxifying property is valuable for any toxic condition.

 

Dark Circles under the eyes:

Not only cucumber slices but raw potato slice also do the job. Twice a day application will make your dark circles disappear miraculously.

 

Weight loss:

It is a myth that potatoes make you fat but it is the oil and the butter that does the job. Potatoes have low calorie content. So they are an excellent alternative to cereals and grains for weight loss regimen¹⁰.

 

TOXICOLOGY:

Acrylamide and glycoalkaloids are the two primary toxins associated with potatoes. The highest dietary exposure to acrylamide in man comes from potatoes, cereals, and coffee. Acrylamide present in foods is a consequence of a heat-induced reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars, known as the Maillard reaction. The relative levels of these precursor chemicals, which themselves are dependent on the cultivar, growing conditions, harvest time, and storage; determine the final acrylamide concentration in the potato. The heat intensity and cooking method are directly related to the formation of acrylamide. Boiled and baked potatoes generally have less acrylamide, whereas French fries and potato and tortilla chips have a higher acrylamide content¹¹.

 

A maximum acceptable exposure level has not been determined, and a direct association between dietary acrylamide and cancer has not been established, despite animal experiments demonstrating genotoxicity¹¹. Epidemiological studies have found no association between acrylamide consumption and breast cancer in women and likewise no association between acrylamide intake and colorectal cancer in men¹².

 

GLYCOALKALOIDS IN POTATO:

Glycoalkaloids have been implicated as teratogens in animal studies. In vitro experiments have shown glycoalkaloids to inhibit human serum cholinesterases, and in case studies of toxicity related to potato consumption, effective plasma cholinesterase levels were low. Symptoms associated with this effect include weak, rapid pulse; rapid and shallow breathing; delirium; and coma. Reports of death exist, especially associated with the consumption of blighted, greening, or sprouted tubers. More commonly, GI adverse effects are reported, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Interference by glycoalkaloids on the transport of calcium and sodium ions across cell membranes and the disruption of cholesterol-containing cell membranes has also been reported^{1, 13, 14}.

 

The glycoalkaloids, solanine and chaconine are found in potatoes; however, the total glycoalkaloid content depends on the cultivar of the potato, as well as postharvesting exposure to light and heat and the processing methods for cooking and consumption. Boiling potatoes reduces the glycoalkaloid content by approximately 3%, microwaving by 15%, and deep-frying by amounts of up to 40%. Potato fries, chips, and flakes commercially available contain variable amounts of glycoalkaloids. Concern has been raised regarding frying processes, especially with regard to the frequency with which the oil used for frying is changed. The oil becomes saturated with glycoalkaloids and diffusion back into the potato can occur, increasing the glycoalkaloid level.   

   

Figure 1 Structures of (a) alpha chaconine and (b) alpha solanine [17].

 

Friedmanand Dao (1992) found that leaves had a concentration of glycoalkaloids 10 times greater than the tubers^{15, 16}. Research has been carried out on the bioactive compounds of potato separately. Alpha chaconin is a very important glycoalkaloid has shown positive results and immense potential to be used in drugs.

 

EFFECT OF POTATO EXTRACT ON ALLOXAN TREATED RATS:

Effect of two Egypt potato cultivars was checked on alloxan treated rats. Alloxan destroys all insulin producing cells. The study revealed elevation in all liver function enzymes in alloxan treated rat liver, pancreas and kidney cells. Both the cultivars showed decreased these elevations in all the cells in different proportions¹⁷.

 

DETERMINATION OF GLYCOALKALOID CONTENT:

Glycoalkaloids are toxic compounds and their presence in commercially available potatoes range from 2-15 mg/100 mg, which rises to a great extent when the tubers are subjected to biological stress. Glucoalkaloids are toxic above 20 mg/100 mg¹. A high intake of glycoalkaloids is harmful. Spectrophotometric analysis very rarely reveals a-chaconin and a-solanine because there are no chromatophore groups in the molecules. A simple way of measuring glycoalkaloid content is by quantifying lisosome lysis. They interact synergistically in destabilizing membranes. Glycoalkaloid content is proportional to lysosome lysis, which is measured by flow cytometry¹⁸.

 

Another method of glycoalkaloid determination in potato tubers is via biosensor. Butyrylcholinesterase biosensors have been successfully used for glycoalkaloid determination. It provides simple and quick determination even for a great number of samples. This method does not require any pretreatment of the potato extracts. The result also shows good storage stability, the response being stable for more than three months¹⁹.

 

DROUGHT RESISTANCE IN POTATO:

Spermidine synthase (SPDS) catalyses the formation of an essential polyamine, spermidine. Spermidine is formed from putrescine by transfer of an aminopropyl group from decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine. Spermidine is also a precursor to further polyamines, such as spermine and thermospermine, most of which contribute to tolerance against drought and salinity in plants. Thermospermine is indispensable for vascular tissue growth. To pursue this SPDS has been isolated from potato and tested for its region of accumulation in the plant. Phloem is found to contain maximum levels of SPDS, which increases under conditions of drought and stress. Such high amount in the phloem may be due to the reason that initial steps of biosynthesis of alkaloids from basic amino acids takes place in the phloem²⁰.

 

DISEASE RESISTANCE IN POTATO:

Potato is susceptible to a wide number of pests and its disease resistance has gained a lot of importance in the scientific community. Irish famine was a result of potatoes infected with Phytophthorainfestans. The infected potatoes were called late blight potatoes. Phytophthorainfestans hence is a major threat to the population and growth of potatoes. Most of the cloned disease resistance varieties of potatoes have been incorporated with genes that encode nucleotide-binding site (NBS) and leucine-rich-repeat (LRR) domains conferring disease resistance. However, the organism now has generated resistance to these by evading recognition by these cytoplasmic immune receptors. A recent study has shown a new receptor protein ELR (elicitin response) obtained from wild variety of potato (Solanum microdontum) which bears the property of mediating extracellular recognition of elicitin domain which remains conserved in Phytophthorainfestans.

 

ELR also mediates a broad spectrum recognition of Phytophthora species. So incorporating the encoding this protein resulted in potatoes with better resistance against Phytophthora and even the resistant ones^{21, 22}. On a molecular and genetic level resistance against diseases is also brought about by some proteins. These are non-specific lipid transfer proteins (nsLtps) which are found in several Solanum plants including potato. There are 6 nsLtp mRNA sequences discovered so far in the Solanum tuberosum gene and protein sequences. These nsLtps give rise to resistance against diseases²³.

 

ound in potato infected with Phytophthera infestansyme of plant metabolismisorders in livestock feeding on Soalnum leavese abovPHARMACOGNOSY:

Plants show antimicrobial properties due to the presence of secondary metabolites²⁴. Autotrophic plants generate their own defense mechanism against all microbes they are exposed to by producing secondary metabolites lie alkaloids, phenols, flavanoids, terpenoids, essential oils etc. Tannins, saponins polypeptides and reducing sugars are soluble in water whereas terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, and fatty acids are soluble in organic solvents²⁵.Tannins and reducing sugars are soluble in both water as well as organic solvents but their solubility is more in organic solvents as compared to water. All the active principles present in plants are saturated organic compound so they get extracted in ethanol or methanol²⁶.

 

Potatoes contain toxic compounds called glycoalkaloids of which solanine and chaconin are most prevalent⁵, ²⁷. Solanine is also found in other Solanaceae plants like eggplant and tomato. Several studies show that glycoalkaloid content is highest in flowers, sprouts and leaves and lowest in tuber flesh. These toxic compounds, which are generated by the plant to fight its predators, provide antimicrobial affect to the plant.

 

PHYTOCHEMISTRY:

The compound a-chaconine, one of the two major potato trisaccharide glycoalkaloids, have shown cytotoxic effects on human cancer cells. a-chaconine induced apoptosis of HT-29 cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. HT-29 cells are Human Colorectal Adenocarcinoma cell lines. caspase-3 activity and the active form of caspase-3 were increased 12 h after a-chaconine treatment. Caspase-3 induces apoptosis. So a-chaconin from potato plant extract cause apoptosis of HT-29 cells by increased capase-3 activity¹⁵.

 

The compound a-chaconin has both antibacterial as well as antifungal activity. But in some cases it is seen that some fungal strains are able to grow on potato sprouts that accumulate a-chaconin to a fairly great extent. A study shows three fungal strains isolated from potato sprouts to identify the enzyme that hydrolyses a-chaconin. The enzyme has been isolated from Plectosphaerellacucumerina, and purified on columns of DEAE-Toyopearl and Phenyl-Toyopearl. The partially purified enzyme was able to hydrolyse a-chconine to b1-chaconine²⁸.

 

Drought stress has no significant effect on anthocyanins, peroxidases, soluble phenols, water (ACE) and lipid soluble antioxidants (TXE) accumulated in potato tuber tissue. But, it is important to note that drought stress significantly increased the contents of soluble protein, lipid acyl hydrolase activities and total concentration of free amino acids. Increased amino acid content increases the nutritional value of potatoes².

 

In a recent study, in addition to α-solanine and α-chaconine, two major steroid glycoalkaloids, were extracted. The newly found compounds are glycosides of tomatidenol and were isolated from leaves and aged tuber slices of, Solanum tuberosum L. var Kennebec. The steroid glycosides have been identified as α- and β-solamarine. These compounds were not found in tuber peel or freshly sliced Kennebec tubers or in 20 other cultivars²⁹.

 

Other than alkaloids there are several other bioactive compounds that are found in potato plant in various amounts. A list of the phytochemicals is given in the table below in Table 1.

 

Table 1: List of Bioactive compounds

 

Potato tuber contains mainly phenolic compounds like hydroxycinnamic acids, hydrxybenzoic acids, flavonoids, and polyamines as shown in Table 2. Anthocyanins are present only in colored potatoes³⁰.

 

Leaves of potato plant contain more amounts of glycoalkaloids and calystegins than any other part of the plant. It also contains tuberisation hormone and other compounds. A list of some of the bioactive compounds found in leaves is given below in Table 3.

 

Table 2: List of phenolic compounds found in potato tubers

 

Table 3: List of phenolic compounds found in the leaves of potato plant

Phenolic compounds	Names	Reference
Calystegin B2 (1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroxynortropane)	Potent inhibitor of beta-glucosidase May be responsible for neurological disorders in livestock feeding on Solanum leaves	31
2-carboxyarabinitol-1-phosphate	Potent inhibitor of photosynthetic enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase Involved in the diurnal regulation of this key enzyme of plant metabolism`	32, 33
Propane-1-thiol	Flavor compound
Tuberonic alpha glucosidase	Thought to be potato tubersation hormone	34
Rishitin	Found in potato infected with Phytophthera infestans	34,35

 

CONCLUSION:

Research has shown antimicrobial and other pharmaceutical drugs that are generated from natural source have much less toxicity, allergic reaction and stability problems. Raw and cooked potato preparations are used as various homemade solutions to various diseases like stomach disorders, edema, arthritis, burns and boils, detoxification, insomnia, cramps etc. Potato edible and non-edible parts of the plant are rich sources of various bioactive compounds which have great therapeutic value. Potato plant leaves have shown to have highest concentration of bioactive compounds than any other plant parts. But since the tubers are the ones that are used for consumption, much of the research till now have been done on them.

 

Calystegins and glycoalkaloids and other potato proteins have huge therapeutic properties. Potatoes also contain tannins, saponins, phenols and glycosides which also possess pharmaceutical properties. Potato has antimicrobial, antiulcer, antidiabetic, anticancer, antioxidant properties, lower blood pressure, improve liver functions and many more. More and more researches are to be done to find out natural substitutes of synthetic therapeutically valuable compounds in modern medicine and in this aspect, potato has the potential to become one of the most important crops in the pharmaceutical industry in addition to being fourth most important non grain crop to feed hunger.

 

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